around a number of meaning areas, some large, such as ‘philosophy’ or ‘ emotions’, others smaller, such as ‘kinship’ or ‘colour’. Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.
Chapter 7
1 - Word-meaning changes by modes of extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, and transfer. Of these, extension and narrowing are by far the most common.
2 - Extension of meaning, also known as generalization, is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.
A large proportion of polysemic words of modern English have their meanings extended sometime in the course of development. Extension of meaning is also found in many technical terms, which as the term suggests are confined to specialized use. Words commonized from proper nouns have experienced the same semantic change.
3 - Narrowing of meaning, also called specialization, is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.
When a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. For economy, some phrases are shortened and only one element of the original, usually an adjective, is left to retain the meaning of the whole. The same is true of material nouns, which are used to refer to objects made of them and thus have a more specific sense.
4 - Elevation or amelioration refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.
5 - Degradation or pejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic elevation. It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.
6 - Transfer. Words which were used to designate one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced, the process of semantic transfer. There is associated transfer, for example, the lip of a wound; the tongue of a bell; the nose of a plane, in which the meaning is transferred through association.
7 - There are gemerally two major factors that cause changes in meaning.
Extra-linguistic facotors: Historical reason. Class reason. Language is just like a mirror, reflecting everything that exists in human society. Naturally, it records the speech and attitude of different social classes. Psychological reason. The associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words, etc. are often due to psychological factors.
Linguistic Factors: The change of meaning may be caused by internal factors within the language system. The influx of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning. the change of meaning is brought about by analogy.
Chapter 8
1 - In a narrow sense, it refers
to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. This is known as linguistic context which may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.. |
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